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Secretions from seminal vesicles and the prostate gland mix with sperm to form semen erectile dysfunction zyrtec discount 100 mg levitra extra dosage visa. The penis is used to deliver semen into the female reproductive tract during sexual intercourse. Sites of normal microflora in the urogenital system also are common sites of infections, partly because of their proximity to the rectum and partly because they provide warm, moist conditions suitable for microbial growth. The normal microflora of the urogenital system are found mainly at or near the external opening of the urethra of both sexes and the vagina of females. Many the Female Reproductive System the female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and external genitalia 618 Components of the Urogenital System 619 (a) Defense mechanisms in the urogenital system are numerous. Normal microflora compete with opportunists and pathogens for nutrients and space and prevent them from causing disease. Urinary sphincters (muscles that close openings) act as mechanical barriers to microbes and also help prevent the backflow of urine. The flow of urine through the urethra and of mucus through both the urethra and vagina helps wash away microbes. The low pH within both the urethra and, during reproductive years, the vagina prevents invasion by pathogens. Despite its defenses, the urogenital tract is poorly protected against sexually transmitted diseases. The organisms that cause gonorrhea, syphilis, and nongonoccocal urethritis tolerate acidic conditions and successfully compete with natural microflora of the urogenital tract. This colonization of the urethral end ensures that even "clean catch" urine specimens will contain bacteria flushed out of the urethra during voiding. Escherichia coli and Lactobacillus are the most common organisms, and can reach 100,000 bacteria/ml of urine. However, if urine is collected by direct puncture (suprapubic) of the bladder with sterile needle and syringe, the urine is typically sterile in a healthy person. Acid pH and high salt and urea concentrations retard the growth of bacteria in urine. However, urine specimens should be delivered to the lab promptly and refrigerated during any delays, as microbes will multiply rapidly in urine left sitting out at room temperature. Infections of the urinary system often occur near the opening of the urethra, which serves as a portal of entry. Tiny nanobacteria, the size of viruses, live in urine, where by precipitating calcium and other minerals around themselves, they induce formation of kidney stones.

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When pathogens have evaded humoral immunity and established themselves inside cells erectile dysfunction new zealand generic 100 mg levitra extra dosage with visa, they can cause long-term infections unless the infected cells are destroyed by cellmediated immunity. An agent that infects T cells is especially devastating because it destroys the very cells that might have combated the infection. Eosinophils have a similar protein, which they may use to kill certain helminths and other parasites. Cytotoxic T cells bind to antigens presented by macrophages and then attack virus-infected cells. Both kinds of killer cells contain granules of a lethal protein, perforin, which is released when they bind to a target cell. Perforin bores holes in the target cell membranes so that essential molecules leak out and the cells die. By killing infected cells while they are few in number and before new virus particles are released from them, cytotoxic T cells prevent the spread of infection-but at the expense of destroying host cells. Both kinds of killer cells can withdraw from cells they have damaged and move on to other target cells. This factor causes macrophages to increase production of toxic hydrogen peroxide, along with enzymes that attack the phagocytized organisms and accelerate the inflammatory response. We have now completed the discussion of cellmediated immunity-how it is initiated and how its effects are produced. The discovery of such an efficient mechanism for killing cells raises two important questions: What prevents perforin from killing adjacent uninfected cells, and what prevents it from attacking the membranes of the killer cells themselves Binding to the receptor molecule does not involve specificity for the receptor site. The greatest number of T cells that are activated in this way do not have a use in fighting the causative infection. Many of them die as a result, leaving the immune system deficient in those types of cells, thus leaving the host open to even more infections. When these multiply excessively, the host tissues are attacked-a disorder called autoimmunity, which will be discussed in Chapter 18. It is possible that autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis may be caused by superantigens. It consists of the entire gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract, respiratory tract, and mammary glands. The immune response to pathogens on the epithelial surface of the mucosa has some characteristics different than the immune response to pathogens in the blood and lymph. They take up antigens from the gut by endocytosis and release the antigens to antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells beneath them. Previously unactivated lymphocytes that become activated by the antigen-presenting cells are transported to other mucosal surfaces by entering the blood, via lymph nodes that drain from the intestinal region (mesenteric lymph nodes) or thoracic region.

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Blood agar is often used to observe changes in the appearance of the agar around the colonies growing on this medium erectile dysfunction 60784 purchase online levitra extra dosage. This medium could then be called: (a) Selective (b) Designated (c) Differential (d) Defined (e) Exact 15. A bacterial medium that contains 20 grams of beef extract and 10 grams of sodium chloride dissolved in 1 liter of water is a defined medium. MacConkey agar contains the dye, crystal violet, that inhibits the growth of Gram-positive bacteria and also contains lactose and a pH indicator that allow the detection of lactosefermenting bacteria. MacConkey agar is classified as: (a) Differential, selective (b) Complex, selective (c) Defined, selective, differential (d) Differential (e) Regulatory, selective 17. What are the purposes of carrying out the streak plate and pour plate techniques in microbiology The bacteria that multiply in improperly treated sealed canned food are most likely to be: (d) Anaerobes (a) Aerobes (e) Facultative anaerobes (b) Carnivores (c) Omnivores 20. During quorum sensing, bacteria sense their population density by: (a) Secretion of inducer molecules that become effective when a sufficient amount is secreted (b) Detection of compression from neighboring cells (c) Detection of nutrient depletion (d) Mobilization of sentry cells that circle the periphery of the colony 21. Which of the following methods allows determination of the specific number of viable cells in a specimen Investigate the theory that iron-eating bacteria, responsible for turning water yellow, red, or orange, and leaving a rusty slime deposit in toilet tanks, may have been the first living organisms on this planet. Frustrated after working unsuccessfully for months beyond the time it should have taken, she had an "Aha! Deinococcus turned out to have two circular chromosomes, plus a megaplasmid and a smaller plasmid. Further work by others has revealed that there are always at least four copies of the genome present in each cell, and 8 to 10 copies per cell during division. It also survives extremes of drying, ultraviolet exposure, and hydrogen peroxide, earning it the name of polyextremeophile. Above or below each break is an intact piece that acts as a template and primer for accurate repair of the break. We have considered many aspects of metabolism and growth, but we have yet to consider the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins. Synthesis of these complex molecules is the basis of genetics, the study of heredity. The genetics of microorganisms is an exciting and active research area, and it is also a rewarding area for microbiologists. Since the inception of the annual Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1900, more than 30 prizes have been awarded in microbiology-related fields, especially microbial genetics. Because of this intensive investigation, much is now known about microbial genetics. In the next chapter we will discuss the mechanisms by which genetic information is transferred among microorganisms.

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The parasite is now known to disappear from blood circulation erectile dysfunction treatment medicine order cheapest levitra extra dosage and levitra extra dosage, out of the reach of drugs, by invading cells of the liver and other tissues. Some strains of the parasite also became resistant to chloroquine, one of the best drugs for treating malaria. Rice must grow in wet conditions, so the dry plains were flooded and the cattle were banished from the area. Attracted by the water and the increased humidity, malaria-carrying mosquitoes came to outnumber nonmalaria-carrying mosquitoes 2 to 1. And because the favorite host of the Anopheles mosquitoes-cattle-had been removed from the fields, the mosquitoes turned to humans for their meals. The result of all these environmental changes was a frightening increase in malaria incidence. In fact, global warming is predicted to bring about the spread of P falciparum, the spe. Computer models predict it will spread to the eastern United States and Canada, to most of Europe, and to Australia. That means that health education and affordable replacements for chloroquine are paramount in controlling malaria. Mosquito nets impregnated with mosquito-killing chemicals could also be effective. In Gambia, childhood mortality from malaria fell by an astonishing 63% after the introduction of these nets. Fungi 321 Trophozoites reproduce asexually, producing many more merozoites, which are released into the blood by the rupture of red blood cells. Multiplication and release of merozoites is repeated several times during a bout of malaria. Some merozoites enter the sexual reproductive phase and become gametocytes, or male and female sex cells. Zygotes pass through the stomach wall and produce sporozoites, which eventually make their way to the salivary glands. Several species of Plasmodium cause malaria, and each displays variations in the life cycle just described and in the particular species of mosquito that serves as a suitable host. Another apicomplexan, Toxoplasma gondii, causes lymphatic infections and blindness in adults and severe neurological damage to the fetuses of infected pregnant women. The largest group of protozoans, the ciliates, have cilia over most of their surfaces.

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Exotoxins are more powerful toxins produced by several Gram-positive and a few Gram-negative bacteria food erectile dysfunction causes generic levitra extra dosage 100 mg otc. Most are polypeptides, which are denatured by heat, ultraviolet light, and chemicals such as formaldehyde. Species of Clostridium, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and several other bacteria produce exotoxins. Hemolysins were first discovered in cultures of bacteria grown on blood agar plates. Streptococci and staphylococci produce different hemolysins that are helpful in identifying them in laboratory cultures. There is no evidence that red blood cell lysis plays a role in the disease syndrome. Rather, the Hemolysins also hemolysins release iron from the hemogloattack cells bin molecules in the red blood cells. Iron is a other than red critical element for growth of all cells, both blood cells, but host and microbe. Most of it ily visualized in is bound in a form such as hemoglobin, and blood agar. Bacteria that can produce hemolysins can grow better than those that do not produce these enzymes. Especially in the staphylococci, the hemolysins can damage other types of cells as well. Virulence factors called leukocidins are exotoxins produced by many bacteria, including the streptococci and staphylococci. These toxins damage or destroy Leukocidins certain kinds of white blood cells called release neutrophils and macrophages. Leukocidins cell-killing are most effective when released by microbes enzymes from that have been engulfed by a neurophil. Because of the action of leukocidins, the number of white blood cells decreases in certain diseases, although most infections are characterized by an elevated white cell count. A similar substance, called leukostatin, interferes with the ability of leukocytes to engulf microorganisms that secrete the exotoxin. Grote, University of Texas, Austin/Biological Photo Service) (b) Nocardia colonies release -hemolysins, which produce complete breakdown of hemoglobin, causing clear zones to form around colonies grown on blood agar. Dystonia refers to a group of neurologic disorders characterized by abnormal, sustained involuntary movements, often twisting, that are of unknown origin.

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After entering the body through an animal bite or other break in the skin impotence vitamins purchase online levitra extra dosage, the rabies virus first replicates in injured tissue for 1 to 4 days and then migrates to nerves, where it replicates slowly until it reaches the spinal cord. It progresses rapidly up the spinal cord to the brain by the flow of cytoplasm through axons. The time from infection to the appearance of symptoms varies from 13 days to 2 years but is usually between 20 and 60 days. The length of time required for symptoms to appear is proportional to the distance between the wound and the brain and is affected by the accessibility of nerve fibers. Thus, a bite on the face, which is well supplied with nerves and close to the brain, produces symptoms much more quickly than does a bite on the leg. The rabies virus has a predilection for nervous tissue but also infects salivary glands and the respiratory tract lining. There are even documented cases of transmission of rabies virus via corneal transplants. It is the typically lengthy incubation period of rabies that allows postexposure immunization to be possible. Ordinarily there is sufficient time for the bitten individual to be vaccinated and to respond by making enough protective antibodies to prevent onset of the disease. Once symptoms have occurred, it is too late to vaccinate, and death usually follows quickly. In humans the first symptoms are headache, fever, nausea, and partial paralysis near the bite site. These symptoms persist for 2 to 10 days and then worsen until the acute neurological phase of the disease ensues. Hydrophobia (fear of water) occurs as throat muscles undergo painful spasms, especially during swallowing. Aerophobia (fear of moving air) occurs because the skin is hypersensitive to any sensations. Within 10 to 14 days of the onset of symptoms, the patient typically goes into a coma and dies. Of all human patients who have suffered from clinical rabies, only two have been known to survive and make a complete recovery. Both had some degree of protection from an earlier immunization, and they were known to have been bitten by a rabid animal, so postexposure immunological treatment was started immediately. Finding the antigen confirms the diagnosis, but failure to find it does not rule out rabies. Sometimes a diagnosis can be made before death by testing cerebrospinal fluid or serum for neutralizing antibodies, which increase 10 to 12 days after the symptoms appear. The bite of a rabid animal is treated by first thoroughly cleaning it with soap and flushing it with large amounts of water. Almost all the recent cases of rabies in the United States have been caused by bat-associated strains of rabies. During hibernation, the rabiesvirus is found localized in the brown fat of bats, where it remains without multiplying.

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Although most human cancers arise from genetic mutations erectile dysfunction treatment injection purchase genuine levitra extra dosage on line, cellular damages from environmental chemicals, or both, can also cause cancer. Epidemiologists estimate that about 15% of human cancers arise from viral infections. This these viral proteins block the should lead to rapid advances in effects of tumor-suppressor cancer research. Without the products of these genes, the host experiences uncontrolled cell divisions-and a tumor develops. Infection also leads to the production of new virions by budding, which does not kill the infected cell. In the latter case, the presence of virus particles ensures transmission of virions to offspring. Integration of the provirus causes synthesis of viral replication proteins that promote host cell divisions, leading to cancer. A proto-oncogene is a normal gene that, when under the control of a virus, can cause uncontrolled cell division; that is, it can act as an oncogene. Many oncogenes have been discovered in oncogenic viruses, and most code for information leading to un- limited cell divisions. Such oncogenes are mutant genes containing deletions or substitutions (Chapter 7, p. These mutations cause structural changes in the proteins for which the genes code. Such oncogenes work in one of two ways: (1) the product of the oncogene can disrupt normal cell function, leading to cell divisions. The discovery of oncogenes in viruses has had a major impact on our understanding of cancer. Although there is still much to be learned about cancer in humans, perhaps in the future effective antiviral drugs will prevent virus-induced cancers. Components of Viruses Viruses consist of a nucleic acid core and a protein capsid. Such viruses are called naked viruses; those with a nucleocapsid surrounded by an envelope are enveloped viruses. Viruses that share the same genome and relationships with organisms generally constitute a viral species. Many viruses infect a specific kind of cell in a single host species; others infect several kinds of cells, several hosts, or both. The Papovaviridae cause warts; some papovaviruses are associated with certain cancers. The Hepadnaviridae cause human hepatitis B infection, and the Parvoviridae cause relatively rare human infections. Types of Cell Cultures Primary cell cultures come directly from animals and are not subcultured. Diploid fibroblast strains from primary cultures of fetal tissues produce stable cultures that can be maintained for years; they are used to produce vaccines.

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Bacterial interactions affecting Growth Bacteria communicate with each other by means of quorum sensing importance of water generic levitra extra dosage 60 mg on-line. When enough bacteria (a quorum) are present, the amount of inducer molecules they release is sufficient to activate specific adaptive genes-for example, for bioluminescence or toxin production. In the laboratory, microorganisms are grown in synthetic media: (1) Defined synthetic media consist of known quantities of specific nutrients. Most routine laboratory cultures make use of peptones, or digested meat or fish proteins. Other substances such as yeast extract, casein hydrolysate, serum, whole blood, or heated whole blood are sometimes added. Diagnostic media are (1) selective media if they encourage growth of some organisms and inhibit growth of others, (2) differential media if they allow different kinds of colonies on the same plate to be distinguished from one another, or (3) enrichment media if they provide a nutrient that fosters growth of a particular organism. Cultures are maintained as stock cultures for routine work, as preserved cultures to prevent risk of contamination or change in characteristics, and as reference cultures to preserve specific characteristics of species and strains. Biofilms, usually composed of several species, are the most common way that bacteria grow in nature. Exchange of genetic material between organisms within a biofilm leads to genetic diversity. The study of microbial communication, now called "sociomicrobiology," is a new field. This bacterium has found a way to live in the midst of the extremely low pH of the stomach. Scientists have found that it makes an enzyme called urease that produces ammonia from urea. Exactly 100 bacteria with a generation time of 30 minutes are introduced into fresh sterile broth at 8:00 a. In the above example, do you think that the number of bacteria could continue to double every 30 minutes indefinitely An attempt to transfer bacteria to new media during the death phase of a culture resulted in actual growth of the organisms. Bacteria make exoenzymes in order to: (a) Make structures within the bacterium (b) Synthesize large molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids (c) Hydrolyze large molecules to smaller ones so that they can be transported into the bacterium (d) Synthesize molecules needed by fastidious organisms (e) None of the above; bacteria do not make exoenzymes 2. Why do foods containing a high concentration of salt or sugar usually not require refrigeration to prevent spoilage Some bacteria have complex nutritional requirements because they: (a) Are composed of a large number of different types of molecules (b) Can make a great many of the molecules found in the cell from simple precursors (c) Have many different enzymes and therefore can make many molecules (d) Contain unique molecules not normally found in bacterial cells (e) Lack many enzymes and must therefore be provided with many of the molecules they need for growth 10. Match the following microbial oxygen growth requirements with their descriptions: Aerotolerant anaerobe Obligate aerobe Capnophile Microaerophile Facultative anaerobe Obligate anaerobe (a) Killed by oxygen (b) Must have abundant oxygen (c) Likes carbon dioxide (d) Needs a small amount of oxygen (e) Grows with or without oxygen 3. Which type of cell will shift to aerobic metabolism when oxygen is available but will carry out fermentation when oxygen is absent To explain heredity-the transmission of this information from an organism to its progeny (offspring)-we must consider the nature of chromosomes and genes. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C).

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Pathogenic organisms Cause disease in humans who drink the water Inorganic chemicals and minerals Increase the salinity and acidity of water and render it toxic Synthetic organic chemicals (herbicides tobacco causes erectile dysfunction buy discount levitra extra dosage 60 mg line, pesticides, detergents, plastics, wastes from industrial processes) Can cause birth defects, cancer, neurological damage, and other illness Plant nutrients Cause excessive and sometimes uncontrolled growth of aquatic plants (eutrophication); impart undesirable odors and tastes to drinking water Cause silting of waterways and destruction of hydroelectric equipment near dams; reduce light reaching plants in water and oxygen content of water Can cause cancer, birth defects,radiation sickness when in large doses Reduces oxygen solubility in water; alters habitats and kinds of organisms present; encourages growth of some aquatic life, but can decrease growth of desired organisms such as fish Sediments from land erosion Radioactive wastes Effects can be magnified through food chains. Because such wastes are difficult to remove from water, preventing them from reaching water is exceedingly important. More than 400,000 cases of gastrointestinal illness and more than 100 deaths resulted from parasitic contamination of the drinking water supply. Scientists have found that even chlorine reacts with decaying organic matter in water to form carcinogenic chemical by-products. Chief sources of water pollution include municipal and industrial wastes in landfills, residential septic systems, active and abandoned oil and gas wells, active and inactive coal and mineral mines, active and inactive underground storage tanks at gas stations, and a vast quantity of pesticides, fertilizers, and improperly disposed of motor oil. Water Purification Purification Procedures Purification procedures for human drinking water are determined by the degree of purity of the water at its source. Water from deep wells or from reservoirs fed by clean mountain streams requires very little treatment to make it safe to drink. In contrast, water from rivers that contain industrial and animal wastes and even sewage from upstream towns requires extensive treatment before it is safe to drink. Such water is first allowed to stand in a holding reservoir until some of the particulate matter settles out. Then alum (aluminum potassium sulfate) is added to cause flocculation, or precipitation of suspended colloids (Chapter 2, p. Filtration, the passage of water through beds of sand, removes nearly all the remaining microIn the United organisms. Charcoal can be used instead States over 98% of sand for filtration; it has the advanof the water suptage of removing organic chemicals that ply systems that are not removed by sand. Chlorination, the addition compounds as the of chlorine to water, readily kills bacteria disinfectant. The amount of chlorine required to destroy most of the microorganisms is increased by the presence of organic matter in the water. Although current water chlorination procedures have not been proven to increase the risk of cancer in humans, the long-term effects of the interaction of chlorine and organic compounds are difficult to assess. Tests for Water Purity Water purity is usually tested by looking for coliform bacteria. Most municipal water supplies are regularly tested for the presence of coliform bacteria. The presence of a significant number of coliforms is evidence that the water may not be safe for drinking.

Silvio, 23 years: The Deep hot Biosphere Thomas Gold, in his controversial book (which is gaining in acceptance) the Deep Hot Biosphere, the Myth of Fossil Fuels (2001, Copernicus Books, an Imprint of SpringerVerlag), holds that the entire crust of the Earth, down to a depth of several miles, is inhabited by a culture of microbes. The disease is treated with dapsone, clofazimine, and rifampin, but dapsone-resistant strains are beginning to appear. Another control method uses insects, especially wasp larvae, that are parasitic on other insects. The tests and reactions described here represent a broad but incomplete sampling of laboratory and clinical tests.

Sobota, 48 years: Blowing the nose and handling used tissues contaminates the fingers, so that anything touched becomes contaminated. In the transfer of F+ and F plasmids, as in all other transfers during conjugation, the donor cell retains all the genes it had prior to the transfer, including copies of the F plasmid. They contribute to adaptive immunity through the activities of their B and T cells, which we will discuss in Chapter 17. Tests for Water Purity Water purity is usually tested by looking for coliform bacteria.

Ilja, 49 years: Oxygen is poorly soluble in water, and various methods are sometimes employed to maintain a high O2 concentration in cultures, including vigorous mixing or forced aeration by bubbling air through a culture, as is done in a fish tank. The antibiotic doxycycline also works because it kills Wolbachia, a symbiotic bacterium that lives inside the worm, and is necessary for the life of the worm. Betadine and Isodine are used for surgical scrubs and on skin where an incision will be made. The trachea (windpipe) branches into primary bronchi (singular: bronchus), all of which are lined with cilia.

Elber, 38 years: Research indicates that prions are normal proteins that become folded incorrectly. By analogy, transcription transfers information from one nucleic acid to another as you might transcribe handwritten sentences to typewritten sentences in the same language. Granuloma Inguinale Granuloma inguinale, or donovanosis, is caused by the small Gram-negative encapsulated rod Klebsiella granulomatis, formerly known as Calymmatobacterium granulomatis. Pasteurization Refrigeration Freezing Drying Freeze-drying Ultraviolet light Ionizing radiation Microwave radiation Denatures proteins Slows the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions Greatly slows the rate of most enzyme-controlled reactions Inhibits enzymes Dehydration inhibits enzymes Denatures proteins and nucleic acids Denatures proteins and nucleic acids Absorbs water molecules, then releases microwave energy to surroundings as heat Oxidation of light-sensitive materials Cause cavitation Mechanically removes microbes Removes water from microbes Strong visible light Sonic and ultrasonic waves Filtration membranes Osmotic pressure Retracing Our Journey 367 In the Future New products being experimented on include a type of polymer paint that dries with millions of microscopic spikes sticking up on its surface.

Trompok, 55 years: It establishes a persistent infection in which viruses are shed for months to years. But, at best, the use of microorganisms as food can buy only a little time to allow humans to control their own numbers. Most of the pathogens considered in this text are prokaryotic microorganisms and viruses, which together account for the majority of human disease agents. A number of organic acids lower the pH of materials sufficiently to inhibit fermentation.